Japan

Japan is unique among the Eurasian space nations with two, relatively independent national space organizations: one for applications and one for science. Both not only fund and manage satellite programs but also develop families of launch vehicles and maintain separate launch facilities to place the satellites in orbit. The government structure is further complicated by the various ministries and agencies which support these organizations. The Space Activities Commission (SAC) annually reviews Japan's Space Development Program to coordinate national space activities and to draft departmental budgets. The chairman of SAC is the Minister of State for Science and Technology. Since the first launch of a Japanese satellite in 1970, the country has become a major spacepower, perhaps surpassed in all Europe and Asia by only the Russian Federation and the multi-national ESA.

The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) currently receives about 75% of the national space budget primarily via the Science and Technology Agency of the Prime Minister's Office, the Ministry of Transport, and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. NASDA, with a workforce of nearly 1,000 personnel, is responsible for the development of Japanese communications, meteorological, and Earth observation satellites as well as the large H-class launch vehicles. NASDA also oversees Japan's participation in the International Space Station and is behind the proposed HOPE spaceplane. The President of NASDA since 1990, Masato Yamano, supervises five major technical offices: Space Utilization, Space Transportation, Satellites, Earth Observation, and Research and Development. NASDA operates several large space centers including the Tanegashima Space Center for space launches, the Kakuda Propulsion Center for the development of launch vehicle propulsion systems, the Tsukuba Space Center for satellite tracking and control, and the Earth Observation Center for data processing of remote sensing information.

Working under the Ministry of Education, the Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science (ISAS) is devoted to space science research and the development of satellite and launch vehicle, e.g., M-3SII, technologies needed to support this objective. Until 1981 ISAS was a part of the University of Tokyo. The Director General of ISAS, Ryojiro Akiba (since February, 1992), heads 11 technical divisions with 300 staff and 100 graduate students and is advised by a Board of counselors and an Advisory Council for Research and Management. ISAS' primary facilities include the Kagoshima Space Center for space launches, the Noshiro Testing Center for launch vehicle propulsion system development, and the Usuda Deep Space Center with a 64-m diameter antenna for satellite tracking and control.

In 1963 Japan's National Aeronautical Laboratory was reorganized into the National Aerospace Laboratory (NAL) with the incorporation of a space division. As its name implies, the NAL conducts research with a wide range of atmospheric and space systems with an emphasis on airframe and propulsion technologies. As a subordinate organization to the Science and Technology Agency, NAL often supports NASDA programs, e.g., in the development of the LE-5 and LE-7 main engines for the H-II launch vehicle. The Director General of NAL is Kazuaki Takashima with responsibility for 450 staff (75% involved in research) in numerous divisions and groups.The Space Technology Research Group is further divided into 13 subgroups covering all major space technologies. From headquarters in Tokyo, NAL operates the Kakuda Research Center, associated with NASDA's Kakuda Propulsion Center.

Japan benefits from a strong interest in space activities by the giants of industry. Moreover, these firms invest considerable private resources to conceive long-term projects which may not be realized for a decade or more. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Nissan Motor Company are the major launch vehicle manufacturers for NASDA and ISAS, respectively. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Nippon Electric Corporation, and Toshiba Corporation all have credentials as satellite prime contractors. Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd. and IHI Company Ltd. both support development of reusable space transportation systems and the Japanese Experiment Module for the International Space Station. Sumitomo Heavy Industries is well known for launch vehicle support facilities, and Shimizu Corporation is leading industry in the design of long-range facilities, including outposts on the Moon and Mars.

By 1994, the Japanese government was investing in excess of $2.5 billion annually, and, as space budgets in the West decline, Japanese expenditures continue to experience real growth. The total space budget increased nearly 15% between 1992 and 1994, reaching almost 230 billion Yen. During this same period, NASDA's budget increased 17% to 164 billion Yen, but ISAS's budget increased only 3% to 21 billion Yen. Of the record 12 billion Yen allocated to NAL during 1994, 4.5 billion Yen constituted the space budget.